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Algeria
As the Roman Empire declined and troops were withdrawn from Numidia to fight barbarian invasions in Europe, Numidia briefly became independent again under the Donatists, an obscure Christian sect, in the third century. In the fifth century Germanic Vandals crossing to Africa from Spain invaded and conquered Numidia, founding their own kingdom. The Byzantine Emperor Justinian invaded and occupied the kingdom in the early sixth century, but later withdrew as plague and invasions from Persia threatened Constantinople. In the seventh century Berbers led by Kahina, a Judaic priestess, resisted Arab invaders but eventually surrendered and embraced Islam. Shi'ite Berber kingdoms in the south and central regions became immensely rich and powerful, and by the ninth century the Almohad empire, centered at Algiers, was established. It's collapse in the fifteenth century led to the formation of the Barbary States, as Algiers and other North African coastal cities sent corsairs on pirate raids against European shipping, with coastal raids conducted as far north as England. An attempt by the Spanish to occupy Algiers was defeated by help from the Ottoman Empire, and Barbary piracy in the area continued until the early nineteenth century, when first American and later French and British naval expeditions raided Algiers and other ports and destroyed most of the pirate fleet. Finally, in 1830, French forces invaded and occupied Algeria, which remained under French control for 132 years. The French administration of Algeria was conducted under a system comparable to apartheid. Land ownership incentives were used to draw French settlers to Algeria, with many Berbers and Arabs being displaced in the process. The creation of a French Algeria was fully implemented, with the imposition of French customs and culture upon the populace. Only natives who converted to Christianity could become French citizens, and Muslims were prohibited from voting, holding public office, or traveling within the country without special permits. Even Algerians who were educated in French schools and adopted French customs and language were the target of racism and generally regarded as inferior. During the first sixty years of French occupation, the native Algerian population shrunk from four million to two and a half million. After World War I, more progressive elements in the French government tried to make concessions to Algerian nationalist movements, but more conservative elements in the General Assembly blocked them. In 1939 the highly militant Friends of the Manifesto and Liberty was formed from the merging of Islamic and Communist factions. After World War II FML's members developed an increasingly hardline attitude, as their efforts and those of sympathetic parties in France were continually blocked and frustrated by colonial factions. By the 1950s, attitudes between many French and Algerians had degenerated to a level of mutual hatred. Yet one of the most passionate voices for Algerian independence was himself a French citizen, the poet Jean Sénac. Though his parents were French nationals, Sénac was born and raised in Algeria and had had many native Algerian lovers. Risking and then receiving abuse from the colonialists in French, Sénac made many impassioned pleas for both Algerian independence and a bloodless resolution between France and its Muslim subjects, motivated by both his love for specific Algerian men and for the Algerian people as a whole. Despite the racist attitudes existing among most French regarding Algerians, relationships between French and Algerian men were not unknown and indeed through much of the colonial period Algiers was a popular destination for gay French men who appreciated the pleasures of an exotic young man. But those days were rapidly coming to an end. In 1954 a group of exiled militant Algerians formed the National Liberation Front and declared war on France. The Algerian War for Independence began with guerilla and terrorist tactics which nearly paralyzed the country. France sent 40,000 troops to put down the rebellion, only to face terrorist reprisals. Attempts by the French to suppress the rebellion using concentration camps, torture, and mass executions quickly turned the international community against France. In 1958 a revolt by rightist elements toppled the French government and installed a new one led by Charles de Gaulle, amid hopes that he would be able to quash the Algerian rebellion once and for all. De Gaulle, however, called for a referendum to allow the Algerians to decide if they wished to remain a French possession or to be independent. A cease-fire was declared in 1962, and accords signed later that year created an independent Algerian state, the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, with an Algerian government under Ben Bell established in 1963. When Bell proved too autocratic and unable to deal with the new country's economic problems, he was deposed and replaced by Houari Boumedienne, who ruled as president until his death in 1978. Algeria under Boumedienne became regarded as a highly progressive country, with its oil industry becoming highly developed. A 1976 constitution made the country more democratic, with the presidency becoming an elected office. However, the socialist government allowed only one political party, and was sympathetic to the concerns of fundamentalist Muslims. The government also retained much of the old French colonial legal code, which criminalized homosexual relations, making them punishable by up to two years in prison. This penalty remained on the books when the government adopted a new legal code based on Islamic principles in 1984. Because the socialist government failed to adequately address the social and economic problems plaguing Algeria, and because the one party rule offered no alternative, Islamic fundamentalist forces began to grow in size and militancy. In time a series of terrorist and guerilla attacks reminiscent of the old war for independence began. While most consider this campaign to have started in the 1990s as a reaction to the oppressive government of President Abdelaziz Bouteflika, many trace its beginnings to the 1973 assassination of Jean Sénac, targeted not only as a Socialist but also for being gay. Despite the absence of a clear pronouncement on homosexuality within the Koran, and a long history of love between men within Muslim culture, Islamic fundamentalists possess an attitude regarding homosexuality very much like that of their Christian counterparts. Already persecuted by the government, gays in Algeria are routinely targeted for violence and even death by these rebels, and women, particularly those suspected of being lesbian, are routinely raped and mutilated. The violence currently plaguing Algeria and the persecution GLBT persons face from both the government and rebel factions has led to an increasing influx of refugees into France and other parts of Europe. In 1997 L. Faysal, a human rights and HIV activist, was granted asylum in France after he had been arrested and assaulted by Algerian police, and civilians had threatened his life. In 1998 a transsexual from Algeria was also granted asylum. These actions came after harsh criticism of the French government after it attempted to deny asylum to and deport a gay Algerian man who had claimed persecution in his native country in 1995. Algerians have become a major part of the GLBT Arab community in France, and have introduced much of their traditional culture, particular rai, a pop musical form combining traditional instruments and musical forms with men singing in falsetto voices. People in other parts of the world were recently introduced to this musical form by Sting when Cheb Mami accompanied the British pop singer on his single Desert Rose. One of the most popular rai singers is Cheb Abdou, a flamboyant, make-up wearing, effeminate singer who is especially popular among Algerian gays and has often been called "the Boy George of rai," though Cheb Abdou himself emphatically denies being gay. Currently, the civil war in Algeria continues, despite efforts by the government to hide the conflict or the atrocities committed by both sides from foreign media. Foreign tourists, and especially gays, are advised to avoid the country. Algeria boasts one of the lowest HIV/AIDS on the African continent or indeed the world, at 0.07%, though this official figure could also be suspect. Links: Gay Algerian granted Asylum in France (Reuters, 1997) protest eviction of gay algerian, 02/05/95
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